Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Inspired by M. A. Brown and B. K. Sovacool, Climate Change and Global Energy Security: Technology and Policy Options (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011). 2. Inspired by “Poverty in Austerity: Still With Us,” Economist July 3 (2010): 51–52. 3. Inspired by James T. Murphy, “Making the Energy Transition in Rural East Africa: Is Leapfrogging an Alternative?” Technological Forecasting & Social Change 68 (2001): 173–193. 4. Joshua 9:23 and 9:21. 5. Gordon Walker, Environmental Justice: Concepts, Evidence, and Politics (London, UK: Routledge, 2012). 6. United Nations Foundation, “2012 International Year of Sustainable Energy for All” (2011), http://www.sustainableenergyforall.org/about 7. International Energy Agency, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2010. Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? (Paris, France: OECD, 2010). 8. United Nations Development Program, Contribution of Energy Services to the Millennium Development Goals and to Poverty Alleviation in Latin America and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile: United Nations, October 2009). 9. Douglas F. Barnes, Kerry Krutilla, and William Hyde, The Urban Household Energy Transition: Energy, Poverty, and the Environment in the Developing World (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, 2004). 10. Arne Jacobson and Daniel Kammen, “Letting the (Energy) Gini out of the Bottle: Lorenz Curves of Cumulative Electricity Consumption and Gini Coefficients as Metrics of Energy Distribution and Equity” Energy Policy 33, no. 14 (2005): 1825–1832. 11. T. Rapanos Vassilis and L. Michael Polemis, “The Structure of Residential Energy Demand in Greece.” Energy Policy 34 (2006): 31–37. 12. Jorge Alberto Rosas-Flores, David Morillon Galvez, and Jose Luis Fernandez Zayas, “Inequality in the Distribution of Expense Allocated to the Main Energy Fuels for Mexican Households: 1968–2006,” Energy Economics 32(5)(September, 2010): 960-966. 13. L. C. Hunt, G. Judge, and Y. Ninomiya, “Underlying Trends and Seasonality in UK Energy Demand: A Sectoral Analysis,” Energy Economics 25 (2003): 93–118. 14. E. Fernandez, R. P. Saini, and V. Devadas, “Relative Inequality in Energy Resource Consumption: A Case of Kanvashram Village, Pauri Garwal District, Uttranchall (India),” Renewable Energy 30 (2005): 763–772. 15. A Druckman and T. Jackson, “Measuring Resource Inequalities: The Concepts and Methodology for an Area-Based Gini Coefficient.” Ecological Economics 65 (2008): 242–252. 16. E. Papathanasopoulou and T. Jackson, “Measuring Fossil Resource Inequality—A Longitudinal Case Study for the UK: 1968–2000,” Ecological Economics 68(4) (2010): 1213-1225. 17. Norman Myers and Jennifer Kent, “New Consumers: The Influence of Affluence on the Environment,” Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 100, no. 8 (2003): 4963–4968. 18. Tran Van Hoa, “Quality of Consumption: Some Australian Evidence.” Economics Letters 19 (1985): 189–192. 19. F. Hussain, “Challenges and Opportunities for Investments in Rural Energy,” presentation to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Inception Workshop on Leveraging Pro-Poor Public–Private Partnerships (5Ps) for Rural Development, United Nations Convention Center, Bangkok, Thailand, September 26 (2011). 20. Jamil Masud, Diwesh Sharan, and Bindu N. Lohani, Energy for All: Addressing the Energy, Environment, and Poverty Nexus in Asia (Manila: Asian Development Bank, April, 2007). 21. Legros, G. et al. 2009. 22. World Health Organization, Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health (Geneva: WHO, 2006), p. 8. 23. World Health Organization, note 22 above. 24. Masud et al., note 20 above. 25. Y. Jin, “Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution from Household Energy Use in Rural China: The Interactions of Technology, Behavior, and Knowledge in Health Risk Management,” Social Science & Medicine 62 (2006): 3161–3176. 26. John P. Holdren and Kirk R. Smith. “Energy, the Environment, and Health,” in Tord Kjellstrom, David Streets, and Xiadong Wang (Eds.) World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability (New York: United Nations Development Programme, 2000), pp. 61-110). 27. United Nations Environment Programme, Natural Selection: Evolving Choices for Renewable Energy Technology and Policy (New York: United Nations, 2000). Figures have been updated to $2010. 28. Gwénaëlle Legros, Ines Havet, Nigel Bruce, Sophie Bonjour, Kamal Rijal, Minoru Takada, and Carlos Dora, The Energy Access Situation in Developing Countries: A Review Focusing on the Least Developed Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: World Health Organization and United Nations Development Program, 2009) 29. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2006 (Paris, France: OECD, 2006). 30. International Energy Agency, United Nations Development Program, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? (Paris: OECD, 2010) 31. A. Gaye, Access to Energy and Human Development, Human Development Report 2007/2008 (Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Development Program Human Development Report Office Occasional Paper, 2007). 32. Gaye, note 31 above. 33. Jin et al., note 25 above. 34. Masud et al., note 20 above. 35. United Nations Development Program 1997. “Energy and major global issues.” In Amulya K. N. Reddy, Robert H. Williams, Thomas B. Johansson (Eds.) Energy after Rio: prospects and challenges. New York: UNDP. 36. K. Sangeeta, “Energy Access and Its Implication for Women: A Case Study of Himachal Pradesh, India,” presentation to the 31st IAEE International Conference Pre-Conference Workshop on Clean Cooking Fuels, Istanbul, 16–17 June (2008). 37. B. S. Reddy, P. Balachandra, and H. S. K. Nathan, “Universalization of Access to Modern Energy Services in Indian Households—Economic and Policy Analysis,” Energy Policy 37 (2009): 4645-4657. 38. United Nations Development Programme, note 35 above. 39. J. Murphy, “Making the Energy Transition in Rural East Africa: Is Leapfrogging an Alternative?,” Technological Forecasting & Social Change 68 (2001): 173–193. 40. Mark Schaefer, “Water Technologies and the Environment: Ramping Up by Scaling Down,” Technology in Society 30 (2008): 415-422. 41. B. K. Sovacool and I. M. Drupady, Energy Access, Poverty, and Development: The Governance of Small-Scale Renewable Energy in Developing Asia (New York, NY: Ashgate, 2012). 42. “Success” refers to a program that met all of its targets, sometimes ahead of schedule, with measurable benefits exceeding costs. 43. “Failure” refers to a program that met none or only a limited number of its targets, often behind schedule, with measurable costs exceeding benefits. 44. Original data on these cases are derived from field research and 441 research interviews over the course of four years, site visits to 90 renewable energy facilities, and focus groups with almost 800 community members across the 10 countries. 45. B. K. Sovacool, MJ Bambawale, O Gippner, and S Dhakal .“Electrification in the Mountain Kingdom: The Implications of the Nepal Power Development Project (NPDP),” Energy for Sustainable Development 15, no. 3 (2011): 254–265. 46. I. M. Drupady and B. K. Sovacool, “Harvesting the Elements: The Achievements of Sri Lanka's Energy Services Delivery Project” (Singapore: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Energy Governance Case Study #10, October 2011). 47. See E. Ostrom, “Polycentric Systems for Coping with Collective Action and Global Environmental Change,” Global Environmental Change 20 (2010): 550–557. Also see B. K. Sovacool, “An International Comparison of Four Polycentric Approaches to Climate and Energy Governance,” Energy Policy 39, no. 6 (2011): 3832–3844.